Introduction

• If associated with uroliths then calculi may be found in the bladder, kidney, ureter, urethra or kidney.
• The formation of calculi may occur as a result of several factors including diet, anatomy and (rarely) infection.
• Rabbits have an unusual calcium metabolism. Most mammals have a urinary fractional excretion of 2% whereas rabbits may have 45-60%.
• The level of dietary calcium is directly related to the amount of calcium excreted into the urine. It is not unusual therefore to detect calcium carbonate crystals in rabbit urine.
• Uroliths are usually of calcium carbonate and readily visible on radiography.

Presentation

Acute

• Anorexia, depression, pain, urine staining, weight loss, anuria, dysuria.
• Hematuria, dysuria, urine scald, frequent urination, incontinence.
• Acute collapse.

Incidence

Geographic

• None reported.

Morbidity

• 100% by definition.

Mortality

• Rare unless associated with inability to urinate, bladder rupture or renal disease.

Cause

Diagnosis

Treatment

Prevention

Prognosis

Further Reading

Publications

Refereed papers

• Recent references from PubMed and VetMedResource.
• Hillyer E V (1994) Pet rabbits. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 24 (1), 25-65 PubMed.
• Garibaldi B A, Fox J G, Otto G et al (1987) Haematuria in rabbits. Lab Animal Sci 37 (6), 769-772 PubMed.
• Mayo M E & Hinman F (1976) Structure and function of the rabbit bladder altered by chronic obstruction or cystitis. Invest Urol 14 (1), 6-9 PubMed.

Other sources of information

• Oglesbee B L (2006) Lower Urinary Tract Infection. In: The 5-Minute Veterinary Consult: Ferret and Rabbit. Blackwell Publishing. pp 290.