ferret - Articles
Cystitis and urolithiasis
Introduction
- Inflammation and/or infection of the bladder with or without urolithiasis.
- Stones recovered from ferrets can be struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) or cystine.
- Cause: bacteria -> alkaline urine -> more bacterial growth; urolithiasis or incomplete voiding; poor diet.
- Signs: straining to urinate, blood-tinged urine, lethargic, enlarged bladder, mucus plugs, urolithiasis, pain on palpation.
- Diagnosis: urinalysis, ultrasonography, radiography.
- Treatment: catheterization, retrograde flushing of stones, antimicrobials, NSAIDs.
- Prognosis: good.
Presenting signs
- Straining to urinate.
- Blood-tinged urine.
- Lethargic.
- Enlarged bladder.
- Frequent urination.
- Anorexia particularly if there is pain.
Acute presentation
- When urethral obstruction occurs.
- Obstruction in the males, may also involve prostate pathology.
Geographic incidence
- Worldwide.
Age predisposition
- Struvite uroliths are more common in older animals.
- Cystine uroliths have more often been found in younger animals on grain-free diets containing peas.
Cost considerations
- Diagnostics, including pre-surgery bloodwork, urinalysis.
- In cystitis without urolithiasis, medications include antibiotics, NSAIDs, analgesics and other supportive care.
- Radiographs, ultrasonography.
- Surgery to remove uroliths; may be extensive if urethral obstruction in the male.
- Post-operative medications include analgesics, NSAIDs, antibiotics.
Special risks
- If there is obstruction in the male, it is an emergency.
- There can be bladder rupture in cases of complete obstruction.
Pathogenesis
Etiology
- The urine of ferrets is acidic (pH normally of 5-6).
- With infection the bacteria may cause the urine to become alkaline which in turn may contribute to more bacterial growth.
- Often cystitis occurs due to presence of urolithiasis or due to incomplete voiding such as seen in males with enlarged prostates.
- Uroliths are usually struvite, except for ferrets on a grain-free commercial diet, novel protein or diet with legumes such as peas; ferrets on grain-free diets seem to develop cystine stones.
Predisposing factors
General
- Urolithiasis in ferrets is more common in the lower urinary tract.
- Urolithiasis used to be more common in ferrets when they were fed with plenty of plant protein.
Diagnosis
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Treatment
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Prevention
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Outcomes
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Further Reading
Publications
Refereed papers
- Recent references from PubMed and VetMedResource.
- Nwaokorie E E, Osborne C A, Lulich J P et al (2013) Epidemiological evaluation of cystine urolithiasis in domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo): 70 cases (1992-2009). JAVMA 242 (8), 1099-1103 VetMedResource.
- Nwaokorie E E, Osborne C A, Lulich J P et al (2011) Epidemiology of struvite uroliths in ferrets: 272 cases (1981-2007). JAVMA 239 (10), 1319-1324 VetMedResource.
Other sources of information
- Mayer J & Donnelly T M (2013) Clinical Veterinary Advisor: Birds and Exotic Pets. Elsevier, USA. pp 752.