Radiography allows assessment of both osseous and soft tissue structures of the head   Radiography: overview  .

• Radiography of the skull is not difficult, however interpretation can be a problem as the anatomical structures are very complex.

Correct positioning will help considerably.

• See Head: radiology   Head: radiology  for interpretation.

Uses

• Diagnosis and evaluation of:
  • Dental conditions, eg periodontal disease   Teeth: periodontal disease  , alveolar periostitis   Mandible / maxilla: alveolar periostitis (chronic ossifying periostitis)  , maleruption   Teeth: maleruption  , pseudocysts     .
  • Fractures, eg mandible/maxilla   Mandible / maxilla: fracture  , skull fracture   Head: fractures      .
  • Paranasal sinus disease, eg bacterial sinusitis   Paranasal sinuses: bacterial sinusitis  , ethmoid hematoma   Ethmoid: hematoma          .
  • Guttural pouch disease, eg mycosis   Guttural pouch: mycosis  , bacterial or other infection   Guttural pouch: empyema  .
  • Upper respiratory tract disorders, eg epiglottic entrapment   Larynx: epiglottic entrapment  , chondritis   Larynx: arytenoid chondritis  and calcification     ; retropharyngeal infection, eg strangles   Strangles (Streptococcus equi infection)      .

Advantages

• Portable x-ray machines     can be used for some views, particularly if fast rare-earth film screen combinations are used.
• Dorsoventral views of the nasal septum can be obtained in a well-sedated standing horse   Anesthesia: standing chemical restraint  .

Disadvantages

• General anesthesia   Anesthesia: general - overview  is usually necessary for a good ventrodorsal view of the cranium.

Attention must be paid to radiation safety, use long handled or free standing cassette holders . Personnel holding the horse should wear lead gloves and aprons and use thyroid shields   Radiography: radiation safety  .

• Radiographic views and exposure techniques vary with the area of head being examined.

Exposure factors for the sinuses are considerably less than those for the teeth.

Alternative techniques

• Upper respiratory tract endoscopy   Respiratory: endoscopy  .
• Scintigraphy   Bone: scintigraphy  .
• Sinuscopy   Paranasal sinus: sinuscopy  .
• Exploratory surgery   Respiratory: exploratory surgery  .

Time required

Preparation

• 5-30 min depending on form of restraint.

Procedure

• 10-20 min.