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Lupine poisoning
Synonym(s): Poisoning, Alkaloids, Bitter lupines, Teratogenic
Introduction
- There are potentially two different types of toxin exposure associated with Lupinus species:
- Direct lupine plant poisoning (lupine poisoning) as a result of the toxic alkaloids in bitter lupine plants.
- Lupinosis – this is a mycotoxic condition caused by the ingestion of lupines contaminated by a specific type of fungus. This condition is largely associated with the use of sweet lupines as fodder, and is not due to the alkaloid toxins in the plant.
- This entry only refers to poisoning from lupine plants and not lupinosis.
- Cause: the ingestion of wild (ie bitter) lupines or lupine garden plants containing high levels of toxic alkaloids.
- Signs:
- Acute toxicity: ataxia, muscle weakness and recumbency.
- Crooked calf disease: congenital skeletal deformities and cleft palate.
- Diagnosis: alkaloid concentrations of lupine plant material and history of exposure.
- Treatment: supportive care and removal from the source of lupines.
- Prognosis:
- Acute poisoning: recovery is possible.
- Crooked calf disease: poor for calves with severe malformations.
Geographic incidence
- May occur in countries where cattle have access to and can graze wild lupines.
Age predisposition
- Calves are born with congenital deformities (ie crooked calf disease) following the ingestion by the pregnant cow of bitter lupines at a specific time during gestation.
Public health considerations
- May have food safety implications for meat and milk.
Cost considerations
- There are obvious production losses when calves are affected by malformations.
- Animals requiring veterinary attention will result in increased veterinary fees for the farmer.
Special risks
- Pregnancy.
- Stage of plant growth:
- All parts of bitter lupine plants are poisonous, especially the seeds and the foliage of young plants.
Pathogenesis
Etiology
- The various species of wild lupines can contain different types of alkaloids which can vary in toxicity.
- Individual plants of a particular wild lupine species can contain different quantities of alkaloid toxins.
- Wild/bitter lupine seeds and the young plant foliage contain the greatest concentrations of toxic alkaloids.
- Even dry wild lupine plant material is poisonous, for example hay consisting of lupine plant material could cause toxic effects.
Predisposing factors
General
- The amount of lupine plant material eaten and over what timeframe.
- Individual animal grazing behaviors.
- Availability of and access to other forage.
Specific
- The animal’s pregnancy status – if a cow grazes lupines containing teratogenic alkaloids between day 40 and day 70 of gestation, then the calf may be born with crooked calf disease.
Pathophysiology
- Different species of lupines can contain either quinolizidine or piperidine alkaloids, or some species contain both.
- The most common alkaloid toxins in lupines are the quinolizidine alkaloids.
- The quinolizidine alkaloid anagyrine and the piperidine alkaloids ammodendrine, n-methyl ammodendrine and n-acetyl- hystrine, are the main teratogenic alkaloids in bitter lupines.
- It is thought that the teratogenic alkaloids inhibit movement of the fetus due to a neuromuscular blocking effect: this lack of or decreased fetal movement causes the congenital skeletal deformities, as well as cleft palate, that are seen in crooked calf disease.
- In general, if teratogenic alkaloids are grazed by a cow, between day 40 and 70 of gestation, then her calf is at high risk of crooked calf disease.
- There could still be a risk of the occurrence of congenital calf deformities even if teratogenic alkaloids are ingested up to day 120 of gestation.
- The quinolizidine alkaloids in some species of lupines can cause acute toxicity.
- The alkaloids in lupines are quickly excreted in the urine.
Timecourse
- In cattle, crooked calf disease is more often seen than the acute presentation.
- Large amounts of bitter lupines eaten in a short timeframe could cause acute toxicity:
- Clinical effects can appear rapidly or up to 24 hours post exposure, governed by the quantity of plant material eaten.
Diagnosis
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Treatment
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Prevention
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Outcomes
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Further Reading
Publications
Refereed Papers
- Recent references from PubMed and VetMedResource.
- Payne J & Murphy A (2014) Plant poisoning in farm animals. In Practice 36, 455-465.
- Lee S T, Panter K E, Gay C C, Pfister J A, Ralphs M H, Gardner D R, Stegelmeier B L, Motteram E S, Cook D, Welch K D, Green B T & Davis T Z (2008) Lupine-induced crooked calf disease: the last 20 years. Rangelands 30 (6), 13-18.
- Bunch T D, Panter K E, James L F (1992) Ultrasound studies of the effects of certain poisonous plants on uterine function and fetal development in livestock. J Anim Sci 70, 1639-1643 PubMed.
- Panter K E & James L F (1990) Natural plant toxicants in milk: a review. J Anim Sci 68, 992-904 PubMed.
- Panter K E, Keeler R F, Bunch T D & Callan R J (1990) Congenital skeletal malformations and cleft palate induced in goats by ingestion of Lupinus, Conium and Nictiana species. Toxicon 28 (12), 1377-1385 PubMed.
- Keeler R F (1978) Reducing incidence of plant-caused congenital deformities in livestock by grazing management. J Range Manage 31 (5), 355-360
- Keeler R F (1975) Toxins and teratogens of higher plants. Lloydia 38 (1), 56-86
- Keeler R F (1972) Known and suspected teratogenic hazards in range plants. Clin Toxicol 5 (4), 529-565 PubMed.
Other sources of information
- Ditomaso J M & Kyser G B et al (2013) Lupines. In: Weed control in natural areas in the western United States. Weed research and Information Center, University of California.
- Forero L, Nader G, Craiggmill A, Ditomaso J M, Puschner B & Maas J (2011) Livestock poisoning plants of California. University of California: Agriculture and Natural.
- Cook D, Lee S T, Gardner D R, Pfister J A, Welch K D, Green B T, Davis T Z & Panter K E (2011) Lupine-induced ‘crooked calf disease’ in Washington and Oregon: identification of the alkaloid profiles of Lupinus sericeus, Lupinus sulphurous, and Lupinus leucophyllus. In: Poisoning by plants, mycotoxins and related toxins. Eds: Riet-Correa F, Pfister J P, Schild A L & Wierenga A L. CABI International. Chapter 97. pp 566-571.
- Dauncey E A (2010) Lupinus. In: Poisonous plants - a guide for parents and childcare providers. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK. pp 122.
- Holder T (2009) Lupine toxicity. In: Blackwell’s Five-minute veterinary consult: Ruminant. Ed: Haskell S R R.Wiley-Blackwell. pp 492-493.
- Majak W, Brooke B M & Ogilvie R T (2008) Lupine, Pea Family, Fabaceae (Leguminosae). In: Stock poisoning plants of western Canada. pp 39-41.
- Ralphs M H, Panter K E, Gay C, Motteram E & Lee S T (2007) Cattle grazing velvet lupine (Lupinus leucophyllus): influence of associated forages, alkaloid levels and population cycles. In: Poisonous plants – global research and studies. Eds: Panter K E, Wierenga T L & Pfister A. CABI International. Chapter 67. pp 401-406.
- Gay C C, Panter K E, Motteram E, Gay J H M, Hantz H, Wierenga T & Platt T (2007) Risk factors for lupine induced crooked calf disease in east-central Washington state. In: Poisonous plants – global research and studies. Eds: Panter K E, Wierenga T L & Pfister A. CABI International. Chapter 27. pp 156-163.
- Gay C C, Motteram E S, Panter K E & Wierenga T (2007) Year to year variation in alkaloid concentration of Lupinus leucophyllus growing on the scablands of central Washington. In: Poisonous plants – global research and studies. Eds: Panter K E, Wierenga T L & Pfister A. CABI International. Chapter 70. pp 414-419.
- Panter K E, Gardner D R, Lee S T, Pfister J A, Ralphs M H, Stegelmeier B L & James L J (2007) Important poisonous plants of the United States: Lupines (Lupinus spp.). In: Veterinary Toxicology, Basic and Clinical principles. Ed: Gupta R C. Elservier Inc. Chapter 66. pp 837-842.
- Panter K E, James L F, Wierenga T L, Gay C C, Motteram E S, Lee S T, Gardner D R, Pfister J A, Ralphs M H & Stegelmeier B L (2007) Research on lupine induced “crooked calf disease” at the Poisonous Plant Research Laboratory: past, present and future. In: Poisonous plants – global research and studies. Eds: Panter K E, Wierenga T R & Pfister A. CABI International. Chapter 10, pp 58-65.
- Poppenga R H (2005) Toxicologic differentials for impaired livestock reproduction. 77th Western Veterinary Conference, Las Vegas, 20-24th February 2005.
- Panter K E (2004) Piperidine alkaloids. In: Clinical veterinary toxicology. Ed: Plumlee K H. Mosby Inc. pp 365-368.
- Panter K E (2004) Quinolizidine alkaloids. In: Clinical veterinary toxicology. Ed: Plumlee K H. Mosby Inc. pp 377-379.
- Cooper M R, Johnson A W & Dauncey E A (2003) Lupin - Lupinus species. In: Poisonous plants and fungi: an illustrated guide. 2nd edn. The Stationary Office. pp 75-76.
- Cooper M R & Johnson A W (1998) Lupinus species – Lupins. In: Poisonous plants and fungi in Britain: animal and human poisonings. 1st edn. The Stationary Office. pp 137-138.
- Putnam D H, Oplinger E S, Hardman L L & Doll J (1989) Lupine. In: Alternative field crops manual. University of Wisconsin and University of Minnesota. Accessed on 11th September 2016 at hort.purdue.edu.
- Keeler R F (1972) Effect of natural teratogens in poisonous plants on fetal development in domestic animals. In: Drugs and fetal development. Eds: Klinberg M A, Abramovici A & Chemke J. Plenum Publishing Corporation, New York. pp 107-125.
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